Row Orientation

The optimum orientation of vineyard rows is north to south in order to maximize sunlight exposure on both the east and west sides of the canopy. However, other row orientations can be productive and are capable of producing high quality fruit and wine. Practical considerations are often the deciding factor in determining the orientation of a new vineyard planting. If the field dimensions are of a long rectangle, then planting fewer, longer rows are more efficient than numerous shorter rows, especially for mechanical operations. Planting vineyard rows up and down a steep slope increases the risk of soil erosion, so planting along the contours is preferred.

Spacing Between Rows

The most productive vineyard is planted following the “one-to-one” rule, where the distance between rows equals the canopy height, as this is most efficient for capturing the available sunlight. Vineyards planted with wider row spacing are inherently less productive, as sunlight is “lost” to the vineyard floor; vineyards with narrower row spacing will likely result in reduced grape and wine quality due to shading of the canopy. Once again, practical considerations are often the deciding factor in determining the between-row spacing in a vineyard. Narrow vineyard equipment is available in many locations and can be used to plant rows that adhere to the “one-to-one” rule, or close to it. In any case, rows should be spaced at least 3’ farther apart than the width of the widest piece of equipment that will be used in the vineyard. A tractor with a 54” wheel-base requires rows about 8’ apart for comfortable equipment operation, and cross-slope plantings may require wider spacing to avoid drifting of tow-behind equipment into the lower row.

Spacing Between Vines

One of the more difficult concepts for many growers to grasp is that, up to a point, vineyard productivity and grape and wine quality can be maximized by planting the vines closer together within the rows. For the purpose of illustration, imagine two vineyards, one planted 8’ x 8’ with 680 vines planted per acre, and the other planted 8’ x 4’ with 1360 vines per acre. Let’s assume that the wider spacing will require 40 buds per vine to produce the desired crop of 4 tons per acre. In order to produce a similar crop size at the narrower spacing, only 20 buds per vine will be needed, rather than 40. Because the crop load per vine is half at the narrower spacing than the wider spacing – all other things being equal – the narrower-spaced vines will produce less, but riper, fruit per vine.

Despite the potential advantage of closer vine spacing, there is a point where the inherent growth potential of the vines can overcome the advantages. This is dependent on variety, rootstock, and soil fertility. In Sunlight Into Wine, Richard Smart has described three concepts that can be used to determine the optimum vine spacing to optimize yield and quality. The first is that optimum vine spacing is determined by the potential of the soil. Soils with higher fertility and water holding capacity and greater rooting depth have a higher capacity for vine growth. Low potential soils need closer vine spacing to achieve optimum yield and quality than do high potential soils. High potential soils, such as many deep, fertile soils in the Midwest that have been previously used for agronomic crop production, are capable of producing very large vines, and will benefit from wider vine spacing. As a case in point, own-rooted Traminette vines are usually productive when planted 6’ apart in the row, but this spacing has resulted in shade and over-vigor issues in some Midwest vineyards (based on a personal communication with Dr. Bruce Bordelon, Purdue University).

The second concept is that spacing between vines has a stronger effect on yield and quality than does spacing between rows. Close vine spacing creates more competition between the vines and can result in an optimal canopy density. Vines planted too closely together can result in shoot crowding, canopy shading, and lower fruit and wine quality; vines planted too far apart can result in incomplete trellis fill of leaves and produce less than full crop potential.

Finally, Smart’s third concept is that the vines should be spaced far enough apart to provide enough space for a sufficient number of buds to produce a balanced crop. In practical terms, this means that more vigorous varieties (or more vigorous variety/rootstock combinations) should be planted farther apart than less vigorous varieties (or less vigorous variety/rootstock combinations). As a case in point, Noiret (a complex hybrid variety developed by Cornell University) tends to produce excessive vine size and a low ratio of crop size to vine size, and may benefit from wider in-row vine spacing:

http://www.winesandvines.com/template.cfm?section=features&content=122193

Overly vigorous vineyards tend to get into a vegetative growth cycle which favors shoot growth over fruit production. Excessive vegetative growth causes shading of the renewal zone, the area where fruit is produced and where buds are retained during pruning. In addition to reducing potential wine quality, shading also reduces the fruitfulness of the retained buds. Lower fruitfulness results in lower yields, and lower yields further promote shoot growth, resulting in a cycle of increased vegetative growth and decreased yields. Once a vineyard is planted, there are limited options to break this cycle and to get the vines back into balance. One option is the use of fairly elaborate trellis designs that utilize divided canopies. Other options include practices that devigorate the vines through irrigation management or by increasing weed or cover crop competition. In most of the Eastern United States, irrigation management is of limited practicality, since summer rainfall is unpredictable. Grass cover crops can be useful in slowing down vine growth, but permanent sods can become too competitive with the vines during dry periods, and the risk of spring frost is greater with permanent sods as compared with bare ground. High density plantings provide another method to restrict shoot growth by increasing competition between the vines for water and nutrients. This is a particularly useful concept on low potential soils with low to moderate water holding capacity and fertility, but much less useful on high fertility soils with high water holding capacity. In the latter case, vigorous shoot and vine growth at close vine spacing can lead to disastrous consequences by favoring the overly vegetative cycle described above.

The majority of commercial vineyards being planted today are considered “high density” plantings. In-the-row vine spacing is typically 4-6’ for vinifera and 6-8’ for hybrid and native cultivars. These spacings should be considered a guideline as they assume a balance between vine density, soil potential, and the inherent vigor of the cultivar and rootstock. Vines grafted to a devigorating rootstock such as Riparia Gloire should be planted closer together than vines planted to a more vigorous rootstock such as C3309 (the rootstock 101-14 is of intermediate vigor in most locations). Likewise, cultivars that are inherently more vigorous (such as Cabernet Sauvignon) should be considered for wider in-row spacing than less vigorous varieties (such as Pinot Gris and Pinot Noir).

Trellis height

As previously discussed, the optimum canopy height is equal to the distance between rows. I have intentionally used the term “canopy height” rather than “trellis height”, as the grapevine canopy can exceed the height of the trellis, as illustrated in the photograph included in this article. Once again, practical concerns often outweigh the ideal. Top Wire Cordon (TWC) training https://doubleavineyards.com/pdf/topwirecordon.pdf usually uses a trellis height of about 5 ½ to 6’, as pruning and other manual operations would be uncomfortable if the trellis was higher. Vertical Shoot Positioned (VSP) training https://doubleavineyards.com/VSP.pdf usually uses a fruiting wire at 30-36”, with (generally) 3 sets of catch wires located above the fruiting wire. The top set of catch wires should be placed as high as possible in order to maximize the effective canopy height (within the confines of the “one-to-one” rule) in order to produce sufficient leaf area to produce high quality fruit and wine. In the case of VSP training, the canopy height is usually limited to the height at which summer pruning can be achieved in a practical manner.

Summary

Considering human limitations, the ideal vineyard (arguably) is planted with north to south orientation, with rows planted 6-7 feet apart, and with a trellis construction that provides an effective canopy height equal to the row spacing. Practical considerations often outweigh the ideal so many vineyards are planted with other row orientations and with rows planted farther apart and/or trellises being shorter than ideal. Within these confines, growers should understand the relative potential of the vineyard soil and the inherent vigor of the variety and rootstock being planted, and plant vines at the appropriate spacing in order to achieve a full canopy of healthy leaves with little shade and full crop potential of the highest quality fruit. There is no cookbook to achieve this, but it is part of what makes the art and science of viticulture so interesting.

Information about relative vine vigor, suggested planting distance between vines, and suggested training systems can be found in our Grapevine Variety Characteristic Chart at:

Double A Vineyards Grapevine Characteristic Chart

Additional References

https://doubleavineyards.com/books-gifts/sunlight-into-wine-a-handbook-for-winegrape-canopy-management

https://doubleavineyards.com/books-gifts/wine-grape-production-guide-for-eastern-north-america

Rick Dunst, Viticulturist, Double A Vineyards, Inc.

The use of grow tubes in vineyard establishment has become popular in the past decade or two. Obviously, vineyards have been planted for thousands of years without the use of plant shelters, but the tubes do provide some positive benefits. This article will summarize some research on grow tubes as well as our experience in western New York.

Grow tubes vary in shape, size, and color, and are placed around newly planted grapevines. Support is usually provided with a stake such as a bamboo pole. Manufacturers make various claims, including an increase in first year vine growth and the potential for earlier cropping or increased crop size in the first few years after planting. The positive growth response is attributed to the greenhouse-like environment inside the tube that promotes rapid shoot elongation, especially early in the season when all the vine growth is inside the shelter. Some manufacturers claim positive growth attributes due to the color of the tube and the positive effects of transmitted color on plant growth.

Many University studies have been conducted on grow tube use. Most research does agree with claims of an increase in early-season shoot growth attributed to the use of grow tubes, but support for some of the other manufacturer claims is lacking. For example, research in the Midwest has not shown an overall increase in vine growth from using grow tubes [1]. Rather, early-season vine growth usually results in a single dominant shoot that is straight with long internodes. In one study, newly-planted vines that were not pruned at planting and that were not grown in grow tubes had significantly more leaf area and end-of-season root mass than those trained to a single shoot, regardless of whether or not the vines were trained to a single shoot and established with or without grow tubes. Leaf area and root growth are cited as being most important in vineyard establishment. Additional research in Michigan and other states indicates an increase in shoot extension with the use of grow tubes, but not an overall increase in above- or below- ground vine growth, or an increase in long-term vine productivity [2]. Premature defoliation of vine parts inside the grow tubes was associated with reduced hardiness of vine tissue.

In 2012, the staff at Double A Vineyards conducted a simple experiment that compared the use of Blue-X grow tubes, Plantra grow tubes, and an untubed control for ‘Concord’ establishment. We measured end-of-season vine growth by counting the number of ripe nodes with developed periderm, and saw no difference. Periderm on untubed vines had typical “mahogany” color associated with ripened wood, while periderm on vines grown with grow tubes of either type had a more bleached appearance. While we will follow vine development this coming growing season, our previous experience with several varieties including natives, hybrids, and vinifera suggests there will be no detrimental effects associated with vines established with a grow tube as compared with those grown without one.

Despite the lack of research that supports the claims of an increase in the productivity of young vines, there are some generally recognized benefits of using grow tubes in vineyard establishment, including early development of a single, upright-growing trunk without labor inputs once the grow tubes are installed; protection from animal depredation; and, perhaps most important, protection from chemical herbicides that are often used during vineyard establishment. As noted, vines grown with the use of grow tubes generally produce one dominant, upright-growing cane that can be used to develop the first “semi-permanent” trunk. Protection from feeding by animals such as deer and rabbits can be critical in establishing first-year leaf area in situations where such protection is needed. Minimizing weed growth around young vines is critical during their establishment, as weeds can compete with vines for water, nutrients, and sunlight, with the potential to reduce growth and productivity of young vines.

Interestingly, in our experience, fungal disease pressure is usually not a problem when using grow tubes despite the greenhouse-like conditions inside them. Apparently, temperature fluctuations inside the tubes is not conducive to disease development. One problem that does occur on occasion is foliar feeding by insects such as Japanese Beetles. As the goal of vineyard establishment is to maximize leaf area development of young vines, leaf feeding by insects should be monitored regularly, and control measures should be applied as soon as feeding is observed. In any case, grow tubes should be removed towards the end of the first growing season to promote hardening off (we usually remove them in early September in western New York), and tubes can be stored and re-used for future establishment of new vines.

[1] Midwest Grape Production Guide, Ohio State University, 2005.

[2] Wine Grape Production Guide for Eastern North America, Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service, 2008.

Rick Dunst, Viticulturist, Double A Vineyards, Inc.

Spring has sprung (albeit 3-4 weeks early in Western New York) and Double A Vineyards has begun shipping vines to our customers in warmer climates.  This month’s article will cover the basics of pre-plant land preparation, how to handle vines once you receive them, methods of planting, and early care of the vineyard.

Pre-plant Land Preparation

Pre-plant decisions such as choosing an appropriate variety for your site have been covered in a previous article at: https://doubleavineyards.com/news/choosing-the-right-grape-variety-for-your-location/.  Other tasks that should be completed prior to planting include:

1) Soil testing.  Take a soil test to determine the need for supplemental fertilizer applications prior to planting.  Soil test kits can be obtained from many University Extension offices or from private labs.  Information about soil sampling can be found at: https://doubleavineyards.com/news/vineyard-fertilizer-and-nutrient-recommendations-provided-by-double-a-vineyards/.  Regardless of where your soil is analyzed, I would be happy to assist you in determining the nutritional needs of your vineyard (which is somewhat dependent on variety).  Many nutrient levels can be adjusted after planting, but lime applications, if needed, are best made and incorporated into the soil prior to planting.

2) Weed control.  Weed growth is highly competitive with grapevine establishment, and weed control is the most important factor in vineyard site preparation.  Perennial weeds need to be controlled prior to planting the vineyard.  The systemic herbicide glyphosate will control most actively growing perennial weed species, and does not have residual effects in the soil that might interfere with early grapevine growth.  On erodible sites, plowing can be delayed until the spring, or a cover crop can be planted in the fall to provide protection over the winter.  If a cover crop such as rye is planted in the fall, it can be killed with a glyphosate application in the spring, or it can be plowed under.

Vine Delivery and Pre-plant Handling

When you order vines from our nursery, we will assign a shipping date.  If that date is not suitable due to weather conditions or other reasons, please contact our office at least two weeks prior to the assigned shipping date so we can make adjustments.

Your vines will arrive in a cardboard box or bag  with a plastic lining, with moist shredded paper around the roots.  Open the package  and inspect the roots to ensure they are moist.  If needed, sprinkle a little water around the roots to moisten them, but do not add so much water that the roots are saturated.  If planting will be delayed for a few days, re-seal the box and store in a cool location, but do not let the plants freeze.  Vines can be stored in this manner for a week or more, as long as the plants are kept cool and moist.  On the day of planting, roots can be soaked in water so they are fully hydrated at planting.

Planting methods

There are many methods to plant grapevines, depending mainly on the size of the vineyard to be planted.  A shovel works fine for a few vines or more (for someone with a stronger back than me).  A tractor-mounted auger can be used to drill several hundred holes per day by an experienced operator.  If planting into an augered hole, it is important that the roots  are well distributed in the hole, if necessary they can be trimmed to  fit in the planting hole.
Larger plantings are usually made with a tree/vine transplanter that digs a trench and covers the roots with soil.  This process will require two or three people: a tractor driver and one or two on the transplanter.  Details on this technique can be found in Vineyard Establishment II – Planting and Early Care of Vineyards.  For very large plantings, custom laser planting may be warranted.

Planting and Pruning
Make sure you know if you are planting an own-rooted or grafted vine.  Own-rooted vines are tagged with a designation such as 1-1 (one year grade one vine) or 1-X (one year extra large vine).  Grafted vines are tagged with a designation such as Riesling/101-14 or Seyval/3309; in other words, the variety name followed by the rootstock type.

1) Planting own-rooted vines.  Make sure the hole or trench is big enough to spread the roots out.  If planting in a trench or with a transplanter, there is no need to prune the root system, simply spread the roots out in the trench in both directions, if possible, before backfilling with soil.  If using an auger, it may be necessary to trim the roots to avoid bunching them up in the hole.  The soil line from the year the vine spent in the nursery should be visible, and the vines can be planted to a similar depth.  Essentially, about half the vine goes in the hole, and half remains exposed.  Vines can be pruned before or after planting as described in the “Dormant Grape Planting Questions & Answers” pamphlet included with your shipment.

2) Planting grafted vines.  Planting depth is more critical for grafted than own-rooted vines.  It is important that the graft union be planted 2-3” ABOVE the final soil line.  Vines planted too deeply will produce scion roots (from the variety, rather than the rootstock), which defeats the purpose of planting on a rootstock.  If vines are planted too shallowly, with the graft unions several inches above the soil line, it will be difficult to mound up sufficient  soil  for winter protection.  Remember that in cold climates, graft unions must be protected with insulation every winter (and removed every spring) to ensure vine survival at extreme cold temperatures if no snow cover is present.  For additional information on winter protection of grafted vines, refer to  https://doubleavineyards.com/news/winter-protection-of-grapevines/.  Grafted vines are shipped pre-pruned, additional pruning is not necessary unless some roots need to be trimmed so they are spread out in the planting hole.

Post-plant Care of the Vineyard

Several tasks should be completed following vineyard planting to ensure success:

1) Water in the vines if rainfall does not occur for several days after planting.  Dormant vines do not require much water, but it is important that roots be kept moist so they do not desiccate.  If soil is moist at planting, tamp the soil around the base of the vines to minimize the chance of the soil and roots drying out.

2) Hill up soil around the vines.  Soil should be leveled after planting, leaving a slight mound.  If vines were planted in a trench or with a transplanter and soil moisture is adequate, this process can be delayed for up to a few weeks, and soil can be used to cover the first flush of weed growth.

3) Maintain good weed control around the vines.   Minimizing weed competition around young vines is critical.  An extensive discussion on weed control options for newly planted vineyards can be found at:
http://lergp.org/year-planting/weed-management .

4) Use grow tubes.  The benefit of using plastic grow tubes during the establishment year of a vineyard is the subject of debate.  Some research indicates that the top growth of a few shoots is favored over root development.  However, if animal damage or the use of a systemic herbicide such as glyphosate is anticipated, then the use of grow tubes supported by a bamboo stake is highly recommended.  However, foliar feeding insect pests such as Japanese Beetle can defoliate vines within a grow tube, so the vines should be monitored on a regular basis and insects should be controlled as necessary.

5) Crop control.  Any fruit that develops on first year vines should be removed to encourage vine growth and development of a healthy root system.

6) Fertilization.  If soil nutrition has been adequately addressed prior to planting, no additional fertilizer is generally required, although some growers apply 4-6 oz. of a balanced fertilizer like  16-16-16 (or equivalent) sprinkled in a band around each vine. (See Maxsea 16-16-16 sold by Double A)

7) Pest control.  Some pest control will likely be needed during the establishment year of the vineyard.  Consult local University guidelines.  I will be addressing vineyard pest management issues in a series of articles as the growing season progresses.

For additional information on methods of planting and field marking, and care of newly established vineyards, consult the Michigan State publication Vineyard Establishment II – Planting and Early Care of Vineyards,  by Thomas J. Zabadal, available on our website.

Entire textbooks (or chapters of textbooks, anyway) have been devoted to the topic of pruning, training, and trellising grapevines.  This article will provide a brief overview of the main concepts of pruning grapevines, with emphasis on pruning during vineyard establishment.

Dormant grapevine pruning during vineyard establishment is performed annually with two main goals in mind – training the vine to the desired configuration on the trellis, and building vine reserves to support a grape crop in the future.  Crop control is a third goal of pruning once vines are established, but early vine development should not be sacrificed for small crops in the early life of a vineyard.  Once a vineyard is mature, pruning is used to limit crop size by producing fewer clusters with larger berries and higher quality potential.

Once a vineyard is planted, the single most time consuming vineyard operation is pruning.  Pruning is described as the act of removing parts of a plant, and is performed annually (at least) with the goals of regulating crop size and affecting the location and amount of vegetative growth.  The term “pruning” in this article refers to dormant-season pruning, not summer pruning or hedging that is used to optimize fruit exposure with Vertical Shoot Positioned (VSP) training systems.

Used in conjunction with pruning, training is the act of shaping the vine by arranging it on a trellis.  The choice of training system will have a large effect on the way the vine will be pruned.  The following figure from Cultural Practices for Commercial Vineyards1 describes four training systems, illustrates how a grower should prune vines when using the Umbrella Kniffen training system (a-c), and how the vine should look when mature (g).  Although the position of vegetative growth will change with training system, I chose this illustration to present the concepts of pruning during the establishment of a vineyard and will be referring to it throughout this article.  The entire text of Cultural Practices for Commercial Vineyards can be found at: http://ecommons.cornell.edu/handle/1813/17318

Figure 11 from Cultural Practices for Commercial Vineyards, Jordan, et al., 1981.  (a-c) show a young vine being trained to the Umbrella Kniffen system with double trunk, (d-f) show four different training systems.

Year 1.

Depending on how the vine was treated in the nursery, it will have a few to several buds.  The primary goal in the establishment year is to grow a healthy root system, and the previous illustration indicates one way to accomplish that.  Figure (a) shows the vine after planting and pruned to two shoots or buds.  The idea of restricting growth to only a few buds is to concentrate the energy of the vine into only a few growing points so at least one shoot will develop into a cane that can be selected for growth the following year.  These shoots can originate from the base of the vine and do not need to be tied to a wire, but some method of training is usually desired to keep the vine from sprawling on the ground.  Bamboo stakes can be used to help train the shoots upwards, and plastic grow tubes are often used to protect the young growth from damage caused by animal feeding, chemical herbicides, or mechanical cultivation.  Controlling weed growth to limit weed competition around young vines is especially important in the year of planting, and any clusters that set fruit should be removed in order to direct plant reserves to the root system.

Year 2.

The goals in the year after planting are to begin training growth to the desired training system  and to continue to build vine reserves to support at least a partial crop in Year 3.  This is typically done as shown in Figure (b).  Vines are pruned to a single cane that will produce 6-12 healthy shoots.  If pruning to a high wire training system, the single cane can be tied to the high wire, if possible, and shoots growing on the lower portion of the cane can be removed by hand.  A second trunk can be initiated by retaining a “sucker” shoot near the base of the vine.  Double trunking (maintaining two trunks per vine rather than a single one) is usually preferable in case one of the trunks needs to be replaced due to injury from winter freeze damage or other causes.   If pruning to a low wire training system such as Vertical Shoot Positioned (VSP), then prune to the bud below the fruiting wire and secure to the wire.  Shoot growth in Year 2 should begin to fill the trellis space allotted to the vines.  Any fruit that develops is usually removed by flower or fruit cluster thinning, as leaving more than an occasional cluster for identification purposes is counter-productive because the fruit will compete with vine reserves needed to develop the root system.

Year 3.

The desired shape of the vine should be achieved during the third growing season, and a healthy vine should be able to produce at least a partial crop.  Fruiting canes tied to the trellis become the “semi-permanent” structure of the vines depending on the training system employed.  If not already accomplished, a second trunk should be established.

Training systems for mature vines.

Generally speaking, fourth year and older vines should be capable of producing a full crop.  A training system should be selected appropriate to the variety.  Native American vines (especially) have large leaves and a drooping growth habit, so high wire training systems such as Hudson River umbrella, or other top wire systems, are generally used for them.  On the other hand, vinifera cultivars generally have smaller leaves and upright growth habit, so they are more suited to low wire training systems such as Vertical Shoot Positioned (VSP).  For a schematic depiction of top wire cordon (TWC), umbrella kniffen (UK), vertical shoot positioned (VSP), and Geneva Double Curtain (GDC) training systems, please visit this web site at Ohio State University2:

http://ohioline.osu.edu/b919/pdf/b919_centerfold.pdf

When to Prune? 

Vines are pruned anytime they are dormant.  Cold-tender varieties are usually pruned in the spring so that extra buds can be retained to compensate for buds that did not survive the winter.  Some growers use a “double pruning” system whereby vines are pruned and brush is pulled, but extra buds are left in case there has been winter damage.  In this case final pruning can be done at bud swell; however,  canes removed during pruning are best removed from the trellis when the vines are dormant to minimize shoot breakage while pulling brush.

How many buds do I leave?

Dormant pruning is the primary means of regulating crop size.  Vines pruned too lightly (leaving too many buds) run the risk of producing a high yield of inferior quality fruit that will make inferior quality wine.  Vines pruned to too few buds will reduce crop unnecessarily and vine growth will tend to be overly vegetative and vigorous.  Researchers have developed the method of “balanced pruning” in order to balance vegetative growth with desired yield of mature fruit, and is a system that adjusts the number of buds retained at pruning according to vine size and specific to variety.  Labruscana (native American) varieties tend to have relatively low crop potential per retained bud, so more buds are generally left after pruning (50-60 buds per vine or more might be necessary to produce a moderate yield of 5-6 tons of fruit per acre).  Many hybrid varieties have large clusters and fruitful base shoots, so fewer buds are retained.  In some cases (Vidal and Seyval, for example) fruitfulness is so high that dormant pruning alone does not always limit crop to a desired level, so sometimes clusters are thinned during the growing season.  Many hybrid and vinifera varieties are pruned to 3 to 5 buds per foot of row to produce the desired crop level; for example, vines planted at 6’ intervals between the vines are pruned to 18 to 30 buds per vine.

Suggested pruning formulas for various grape cultivars can be found in the Midwest Grape Production Guide at:  http://ohioline.osu.edu/b919/0008.html

REFERENCES
1. Cultural Practices for Commercial Vineyards, T.D. Jordan, R.M. Pool, T.J. Zabadal, and J.P. Tomkins, Cornell University, 1981.

2. Midwest Grape Production Guide, I. Dami, B. Bordelon, D. Ferree, M. Brown, M. Ellis, R. Williams, and D. Doohan, The Ohio State University, 2005